S27E15: Mars's Methane Mystery: Atmospheric Pressure Clues?

[00:00:00] This is SpaceTime Series 27 Episode 15 for broadcast on the 2nd of February 2024.

[00:00:06] Coming up on SpaceTime, could changes in atmospheric pressure be driving Mars' methane

[00:00:12] pulses? Can red dwarf stars host planets with life after all? And Axiom Mission 3 blasts off

[00:00:19] to the International Space Station. All that and more coming up on SpaceTime.

[00:00:26] Welcome to SpaceTime with Stuart Gary.

[00:00:46] New research shows that atmospheric pressure fluctuations, which pull gases up from

[00:00:50] underground, could be responsible for releasing subsurface methane into the Martian atmosphere.

[00:00:56] The new findings, reported in the Journal of Geophysical Research Planets, could help solve

[00:01:01] one of the red planet's enduring mysteries, the seasonal detection of methane in the Martian

[00:01:06] atmosphere. Importantly, knowing when and where to look for methane could help Mars'

[00:01:11] Curiosity rover in its search for science for life. You see, here on Earth, methane is primarily

[00:01:18] produced as a by-product by living creatures ranging from bacteria to cows. So, detecting

[00:01:24] it on Mars has sent some scientists into a flurry. No one's expecting to find bovine inhabitants on

[00:01:31] the red planet, but the fact that it's happening seasonally and usually in warm conditions does

[00:01:35] raise the possibility of bacterial life. The problem is, methane can also be produced by

[00:01:41] geological processes and telling the difference is hard. The study's lead author, John Ortiz,

[00:01:47] from the Los Alamos National Laboratory, says understanding Mars' methane variations has been

[00:01:52] highlighted by NASA's Curiosity team as the next key step towards figuring out where it's coming

[00:01:58] from. But there are several challenges associated with meeting that goal, and a big one is knowing

[00:02:04] what time of a given sol or Martian day is best for Curiosity to perform its atmospheric sampling

[00:02:10] experiment. A primary focus for NASA's Mars missions, including both Curiosity and its

[00:02:15] sister rover Perseverance, is to detect and understand past or present signs of life,

[00:02:21] such as methane. However, with the source of methane on Mars being underground,

[00:02:26] short-term variations in atmospheric methane levels have posed a research challenge.

[00:02:31] To better understand Mars' methane levels, Ortiz and colleagues used high-performance

[00:02:35] computing clusters to simulate how methane travels through networks of underground fractures,

[00:02:40] eventually to be released into the atmosphere, where it then mixes within the Martian atmospheric

[00:02:45] air column. They also modelled how methane can be absorbed onto the pores of rocks,

[00:02:50] and that's a temperature-dependent process which may be contributing to methane fluctuation levels.

[00:02:55] Their simulations have predicted that methane pulses from ground surface into the atmosphere

[00:03:00] just before Martian sunrise in the planet's northern summer season, but that's just ended.

[00:03:06] Interestingly, this corroborates previous rover data which was already suggesting that methane

[00:03:11] levels fluctuated not just seasonally, but also on a daily basis. The data will help Curiosity

[00:03:16] mission managers' ongoing sampling campaign because it suggests several key time windows

[00:03:21] for Curiosity's collection of data. The authors think these offer the best chance for constraining

[00:03:27] the timing of methane fluctuations and hopefully bringing them closer to understanding where it

[00:03:32] comes from on Mars and what's causing it. This is Space Time. Still to come, a new study suggests

[00:03:39] that red dwarf stars could possibly host planets capable of supporting life, and the Axiom Mission

[00:03:46] arrives at the International Space Station. All that and more still to come on Space Time.

[00:04:08] Okay, time to take a break from our show for a word from our sponsor, NordVPN. We use NordVPN

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[00:06:10] This is Space Time with Steward Garry. A team of scientists are proposing that rocky earth-like

[00:06:17] planets orbiting some of our nearest neighboring stars could support life. And that's highly

[00:06:23] controversial. See, when rocky earth-like exoplanets were first discovered orbiting

[00:06:28] in the habitable zones of some of our nearest neighboring stars, excitement rocketed. It was

[00:06:34] until hopes for life were dashed when it was realized that these stars were usually spectral

[00:06:39] type M red dwarfs. Stars which produce high levels of radiation which would bombard these otherwise

[00:06:46] potentially habitable worlds. A good example is Proxima b. It's a rocky earth-sized planet orbiting

[00:06:53] around the star Proxima Centauri, which is the nearest star to our sun. It's only 4.24 light-years away.

[00:07:00] Proxima b orbits in the habitable zone, the area around a star where temperatures are just right

[00:07:05] for water to exist on a planet's surface in a liquid form. Thereby, if there's enough atmosphere,

[00:07:11] it could pool there, giving life a chance. The trouble is, Proxima b receives 250 times more

[00:07:18] x-ray radiation than Earth and could also experience deadly levels of ultraviolet radiation on its

[00:07:23] surface. So how could life possibly survive under such bombardment? Well, according to a team of

[00:07:30] Cornell astronomers, they say life has already survived exactly this kind of fierce radiation.

[00:07:37] And the proof is you! Lisa Kaltenegger and Jack O'Malley James have made their case in a paper

[00:07:43] they've published in the monthly notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. They say that all life

[00:07:48] on Earth today evolved from creatures that thrived during an even greater ultraviolet radiation assault

[00:07:54] than what Proxima b and other nearby exoplanets are currently enduring. They point out that 4

[00:08:01] billion years ago, planet Earth was a chaotic, irradiated hot mess. Yet in spite of this,

[00:08:07] life somehow gained a foothold and then expanded. Kaltenegger and O'Malley James say the same thing

[00:08:13] could be happening right now on nearby exoplanets. For their study, they modeled the surface

[00:08:18] ultraviolet environments of four exoplanets closest to Earth that are potentially habitable,

[00:08:23] namely Proxima b, TRAPPIST-1e, Ross 128b and LHS 1140b. These planets all orbit small

[00:08:33] spectral type m red dwarf stars which, unlike our sun, produce frequent stellar flares,

[00:08:39] bathing their planets in high energy ultraviolet radiation and x-rays. Now while it's unknown

[00:08:44] exactly what kinds of conditions prevail on the surface of these planets, it is known that such

[00:08:49] flares are biologically damaging and they cause erosion of planetary atmospheres. High levels

[00:08:55] of radiation cause biological molecules like nucleic acids to mutate or even shut down.

[00:09:00] O'Malley James and Kaltenegger modeled various types of atmospheric conditions,

[00:09:05] ranging from ones very similar to present-day Earth to eroded and anoxic atmospheres, those

[00:09:11] with very thin atmospheres that don't block ultraviolet radiation, and those without the

[00:09:15] protection of an ozone layer. The models showed that as atmospheres thin and ozone levels decrease,

[00:09:22] more high energy radiation can reach the ground. The authors then compared their models to Earth's

[00:09:27] history from nearly 4 billion years ago right through to today. Although the modeled planets

[00:09:33] received higher UV radiation than emitted by our sun today, this is still significantly lower than

[00:09:38] what the Earth received 3.9 billion years ago. Kaltenegger says that given that the early Earth

[00:09:44] was inhabited, the study shows that UV radiation should not be a limiting factor for the habitability

[00:09:49] of planets orbiting spectrotype M red dwarf stars. She says that means our nearest neighboring

[00:09:55] exoplanetary worlds remain intriguing targets in the search for life beyond our solar system.

[00:10:01] We live in this amazing time where we found thousands of other planets, planets that don't

[00:10:07] orbit our own sun, but other suns, other stars that you can see in the night sky. And the next one over

[00:10:15] after our sun is actually a small red star called Proxima Centauri and even the next star in only

[00:10:23] four light years away has a planet that could potentially be like an Earth at the right

[00:10:28] distance so it's not too hot and not too cold for there to be liquid surface water. So the big

[00:10:35] question that arose when looking at this young red sun is whether the harsh UV radiation that it

[00:10:42] flings out at its planet would actually be detrimental to life starting to evolve there.

[00:10:49] And what we figured out is when we calculated how much of this harsh UV radiation would make

[00:10:55] it to the ground on that planet, is that it'd be worse than currently on Earth. So for you and me

[00:11:03] it wouldn't be the best place to be, but it's less than it was on a young Earth. And on a young Earth

[00:11:11] we had life so the chances to finding life close to us around the closest stars that happen to be

[00:11:21] red young suns is much greater now. And so our quest to figure out whether we're alone in the universe

[00:11:30] just got a tiny bit easier. That's Lisa Kaltenegger from Cornell University and this is Space Time.

[00:11:37] Still to come, the Axiom 3 mission arrives at the International Space Station and later in the

[00:11:43] science report claims the giant shark Megalodon was a lot slimmer than previously thought. All that

[00:11:49] and more still to come on Space Time. SpaceX has launched another private manned mission to the

[00:12:10] International Space Station for Axiom Space. The mission carrying an all-European crew were flown

[00:12:16] aboard a Dragon capsule on a Falcon 9 rocket from pad 39A at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida.

[00:12:22] Falcon 9 is in startup. Confirmation that Falcon 9 is in startup and Dragon is in countdown which

[00:12:28] means that the vehicles are now controlling the final seconds as we lead up to liftoff.

[00:12:32] Dragon SpaceX go for launch. And there's confirmation from our flight director.

[00:12:36] Go for launch. We are go for launch. 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ignition. Engine full power.

[00:12:57] Further beyond opening the door for more to follow. Godspeed AX3.

[00:13:03] Stage one propulsion. This is the launch of the Axiom 3 launch to the International Space Station.

[00:13:09] Now in just a few seconds here we should hear the call out that Falcon 9.

[00:13:13] Telemetry stage one throttle down. There's that call out that Falcon 9's engines are

[00:13:18] throttling down to help us pass through the period of maximum dynamic pressure during ascent. Max Q.

[00:13:23] There's that call out for max Q. Falcon 9 is supersonic. And that Falcon 9 is going faster

[00:13:28] than the speed of sound. Now at this point we will begin to throttle Falcon 9's engines back up.

[00:13:33] Stage one throttle up. There's that call out for mission control as well

[00:13:36] as our AX3 crew continues on their way to space. We're now T plus one minute and 32 seconds into

[00:13:42] flight. The next event we have is MVAC chill similar to what. MVAC chill underway. There's

[00:13:47] that call telling us that again we're flowing a little bit of that super chilled liquid oxygen.

[00:13:52] Stage one Bravo. Copy one Bravo. That call there was one of the abort mode call outs that the crew

[00:13:57] is calling out as they are making their ascent on Falcon 9. Now we're less than a few seconds away

[00:14:05] from four events that will happen in rapid succession. Main engine cutoff or MECO,

[00:14:10] stage separation, ignition of the first stage engine and the first stages boost back burn.

[00:14:15] Stage one throttle down. That call telling us that the engines are beginning to throttle down.

[00:14:19] MECO. Stage separation confirmed. Space X Dragon zero. Some loud cheers here as the first

[00:14:28] and second stages have separated. That first stage booster is now heading back toward the Florida

[00:14:34] coast. Note that that first stage is actually still coasting to its apogee so it's about 114,

[00:14:40] 115 kilometers above the earth's surface and it's gonna keep coasting for a little bit.

[00:14:48] All right that boost back burn has concluded on the first stage. Everything looks nominal with

[00:14:54] the second stage trajectory. Everything also looking good. Dragon SpaceX trajectory nominal.

[00:14:59] Everything looking good on the first stage as well. Grid fins begin to deploy.

[00:15:03] Now the next two major events for tracking for the first stage is going to be the entry burn

[00:15:08] at about T plus six and a half minutes where we'll like three of Falcon 9's first stage engines

[00:15:14] followed shortly thereafter by the landing burn at T plus seven minutes and 32 seconds which will

[00:15:19] be a single engine burn to bring us back to landing zone one at Kennedy Space Center. At this

[00:15:24] point we should be just about a minute and a half away from that entry burn start. SpaceX trajectory

[00:15:29] nominal. Good call outs there that we continue on a nominal trajectory with Dragon. SpaceX Dragon

[00:15:35] and acknowledgement from the crew. That entry burn we're waiting on here is going to be a

[00:15:39] relatively quick burn and what we're doing with our first stage is effectively scrubbing off some

[00:15:43] of that velocity as we come in for landing. Dragon SpaceX trajectory nominal. That's a nominal

[00:15:49] trajectory for Dragon as we continue to orbit. Again confirmation from the crew. Stage one entry

[00:15:55] burn startup and we are expecting about two and a half more minutes from that second engine burn.

[00:16:00] Stage one entry burn shutdown. As we heard the call out that entry burn has concluded. The next

[00:16:06] burn will be the landing burn. As I mentioned before we're heading back to landing zone one.

[00:16:11] We're going to come through the clouds right now. Dragon SpaceX trajectory nominal. Everything

[00:16:15] continues to look nominal for the second stage there. There it is just like magic we see landing

[00:16:21] zone one. Crowds cheering here at SpaceX mission control Hawthorne and if you couldn't tell by the

[00:16:28] loud cheers we did we did stick that landing. Falcon 9 has landed once again but turning our

[00:16:36] attention back to the crew our next event is second engine cutoff or SECO. Second stage will coast for

[00:16:42] a few minutes until Dragon is commanded to separate. A lot of just the energy here at SpaceX

[00:16:48] mission control is buzzing. You can hear commentary behind us. Right now the crew is experiencing about

[00:16:53] three G's so pretty much a roller coaster for those thrill seekers out there. Stage two is in terminal

[00:16:59] guidance and we are about 20 seconds away from that second engine cutoff. MLA will know this feeling

[00:17:06] very well this experience of going from now almost four G's to Dragon Shannon. Copy Shannon.

[00:17:12] That's another abort mode there being called out now standing by for second engine cutoff.

[00:17:18] Invex shut down. Axiom mission three is the company's third launch to the international

[00:17:25] space station and the first at which all three passengers were members of national space agencies

[00:17:30] rather than wealthy space tourists. The four-man Axiom 3 team is spending two weeks working with

[00:17:36] the seven crew members now on station to undertake a total of 30 experiments. These will range from

[00:17:42] the impact of microgravity on the human body new industrial processes that seem to work better in

[00:17:48] space than on earth. Included is a bone health experiment which look at how quickly bones start

[00:17:54] to lose density in microgravity and how long it takes them to recover once back on the ground.

[00:17:59] There's an orbital architecture study that'll explore how the design of space habitats affects

[00:18:04] an astronaut's thinking and stress levels. Another experiment will focus on how microgravity triggers

[00:18:10] changes in cellular structures and gene expression. The crew will also monitor how they sleep in orbit

[00:18:16] looking for differences in sleeping patterns and brain activity in space compared to on the ground.

[00:18:22] Then there's the Thor Davis experiment. It'll monitor thunderstorms and lightning shooting

[00:18:26] upwards towards space using a special new camera designed to film 100,000 frames per second.

[00:18:33] The Davis camera is an event camera which works in a similar way to the human eye.

[00:18:37] It sees changes in contrast instead of capturing an image like a regular camera.

[00:18:42] The team will also monitor heart rate, brain activity, sleep quality, diet and exercise routines

[00:18:48] to see how they cope with the new environment looking at working memory, reaction time,

[00:18:52] attention and organization. Founded in 2016, Axiom Space was contracted by NASA to develop the

[00:19:00] next generation of spacesuits for astronauts for use on the lunar surface EVAs, that's extra

[00:19:05] vehicular activities or spacewalks in NASA speak. The company's also been developing its own space

[00:19:10] station modules which will initially be attached to the current International Space Station before

[00:19:15] later forming the core of their own new privately operated commercial space station. That should

[00:19:20] be operational before the International Space Station's retired in 2030. This is Space Time.

[00:19:28] In time now to take another brief look at some of the other stories making news in science this week

[00:19:47] with the Science Report. A new study has found that people who show strong obsessive compulsive

[00:19:53] disorder traits have an 82% higher risk of death. The findings reported in the British Medical

[00:19:59] Journal are based on health data from almost 700,000 Swedish people either with or without

[00:20:04] obsessive compulsive disorder. The authors also looked at the health data of more than 80,000

[00:20:10] siblings with or without OCD as a comparison. Now obsessive compulsive disorder isn't the case of

[00:20:16] simply making sure that all your shirts face the same way in your closet. It's a chaotic and often

[00:20:21] disabling psychiatric condition where someone has intrusive thoughts that trigger higher levels of

[00:20:25] anxiety, obsessions which the person tries to neutralize by engaging in repetitive behaviors

[00:20:31] or rituals or compulsions. Previous research had mostly only looked at the psychiatric disorder

[00:20:37] as well as links to unnatural causes of death such as suicide and accidents.

[00:20:41] But little is known about natural causes such as cardiovascular disease and diabetes.

[00:20:48] A new study has found that Carcharocles megalodon, the extinct 20 meter long monster shark long

[00:20:53] thought to have been related to Carcharodon cacarius the great white, may not have been quite as

[00:20:58] massive as originally thought. A report in the journal Palaeontologica Electronica has just

[00:21:04] published an analysis of a fossilized megalodon vertebrate column finding that it had a surprisingly

[00:21:10] small diameter. Assumptions about the body shape and size of megalodon were previously based mainly

[00:21:16] on looking at its massive triangular and serrated teeth and huge jaw which appeared initially at

[00:21:21] least to be sized up versions of those found on great whites. Great whites also known as white

[00:21:27] pointers average around five meters but have been recorded up to 12 meters in the scientific

[00:21:32] literature. For comparison Bruce the mechanical shark in the movie Jaws was around six and a half

[00:21:38] meters. Scientists figure that megalodon may have simply been an overall sized up version of the

[00:21:43] great white which is the stocky body shape. However the slim vertebrate column now suggests that it

[00:21:49] was a much trimmer version than the white pointer. North Korea claims it's just tested an underwater

[00:21:56] nuclear weapons system. Pyongyang says it tested the HAL-523 nuclear system in the east sea of

[00:22:03] Korea. The unconfirmed test appears to be part of a growing escalation in military aggression by the

[00:22:09] communist dictatorship. Last year Pyongyang said it carried out multiple tests of an underwater nuclear

[00:22:15] attack drone, a different version of the HAL which means tsunami in Korean, claiming it could unleash

[00:22:20] radioactive devastation. The hermit state also launched a solid-fueled hypersonic missile last

[00:22:26] year and staged a series of live fire exercises near the country's tense military border with South

[00:22:32] Korea. Pyongyang also recently just launched a new spy satellite into orbit with help from Moscow.

[00:22:38] That was in exchange for supplying arms and ammunition to Russia for its ongoing invasion of

[00:22:42] Ukraine. Over many decades scientists have tested and we've reported on the many different effects

[00:22:50] of drinking coffee. We've looked at everything from cancer and life expectancy through to skin

[00:22:55] complexion. Now they've just released a new study which looks at the effect of coffee on your weight

[00:23:01] finding that it could help slow down long-term weight gain. However before you get too excited

[00:23:07] Tim Mendham from Australian Skeptic says the study was so badly constructed that the findings are next

[00:23:12] to useless. This is a study that was done using a lot of people and actually sort of looked at some

[00:23:17] previous studies and gathered the data from. One was about nurses health covering a period of 30

[00:23:21] years or so and that involves surveys that were done over about 230,000 people. That's a very

[00:23:26] decent sort of size subjects and these surveys were done over the years and they were asking

[00:23:30] people various things about their health and their diet and what they found is probably one of the

[00:23:35] most niche, extreme, obscure factors that you could possibly think of. What they found out was that

[00:23:41] there's a modest link between coffee and gaining less weight than expected. In other words,

[00:23:46] you're still going to gain weight as you get older but you'll gain slightly less weight if you drink

[00:23:50] coffee. The trouble is if you put sugar in the coffee, that sort of counteracts some of that

[00:23:54] thing. Eventually what they're saying is that people who drink an extra cup of coffee, I don't

[00:23:58] know what extra means, if you drink 15 cups of coffee a day, the 16th one is going to make a

[00:24:02] difference anyway. People who drink an extra cup of coffee a day gained 0.12 kilogram less weight,

[00:24:09] still gain weight but like 0.12 of a kilo less weight than expected over four years. Now over

[00:24:14] four years, that's 0.03 of a kilo which is what 30 grams per year, 30 grams per year which is

[00:24:22] not a lot to measure over a period of time and as I sort of worked it out, it works out basically

[00:24:26] as a quarter of a quarter pounder. You and I are both journalists and you and I both know that

[00:24:32] coffee is our friend. I don't drink that much coffee but I don't have the effect, I don't get

[00:24:36] the coffee stimulus. I can have a coffee before going to bed and I'm fine, right? It doesn't have

[00:24:41] effect on me. But what they do say and they admit was there are some problems with their own survey.

[00:24:46] One is that it shows association not causation, not necessarily one causing the other. Second,

[00:24:51] they point out that the findings about the weight are very modest, subtly put. The average four

[00:24:57] year weight gain averted based on one cup of coffee is this 0.12 kilos, 30 grams a year and

[00:25:03] they said that's insignificant amount. It doesn't make a lot of difference. They also point out that

[00:25:07] it doesn't look at the variability and the amount of caffeine in the coffee. You can have a low

[00:25:11] caffeine coffee, you can have a high caffeine coffee, you can have tea etc. that's got caffeine in it.

[00:25:15] All they're saying is did you have a cup of coffee? So in other words, what they're saying is that the

[00:25:18] number of people in the survey that the association is unreliable, the weight gain is insignificant

[00:25:23] and the actual basis of the survey is unclear and not catered for. Well I think it's just one of the

[00:25:28] things they wanted to look at. This nurses survey across the United States, this is one of the most

[00:25:33] complete bodies of work looking at how humans change over time that's ever been put forward.

[00:25:39] It's a massive survey, there are so many different things that have been coming out of it over the

[00:25:44] last 10 years. When you have a survey as comprehensive as that, that's been going for such

[00:25:47] a long time and so many people, you could pull any statistics out of it. They are finding out so many

[00:25:52] things from the survey. This is just I guess the one example where the question was a bit vague

[00:25:58] and because of that the answers are a bit vague. It's also that yeah and it's sort of why even bother

[00:26:03] publishing it? It's just a novelty. Perhaps you should publish it to show that you can create

[00:26:07] any statistics out of such a big survey that you want. It can get any cause and effect if you think about it.

[00:26:12] That's Tim Mendham from Australian Sceptics and that's the show for now.

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